9. Numeric and Mathematical Modules

The modules described in this chapter provide numeric and math-related functions and data types. The numbers module defines an abstract hierarchy of numeric types. The math and cmath modules contain various mathematical functions for floating-point and complex numbers. The decimal module supports exact representations of decimal numbers, using arbitrary precision arithmetic.

The following modules are documented in this chapter:

• 9.1. numbers — Numeric abstract base classes
  • 9.1.1. The numeric tower
  • 9.1.2. Notes for type implementors
    • 9.1.2.1. Adding More Numeric ABCs
    • 9.1.2.2. Implementing the arithmetic operations
• 9.2. math — Mathematical functions
  • 9.2.1. Number-theoretic and representation functions
  • 9.2.2. Power and logarithmic functions
  • 9.2.3. Trigonometric functions
  • 9.2.4. Angular conversion
  • 9.2.5. Hyperbolic functions
  • 9.2.6. Special functions
  • 9.2.7. Constants
• 9.3. cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers
  • 9.3.1. Conversions to and from polar coordinates
  • 9.3.2. Power and logarithmic functions
  • 9.3.3. Trigonometric functions
  • 9.3.4. Hyperbolic functions
  • 9.3.5. Classification functions
  • 9.3.6. Constants
• 9.4. decimal — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic
  • 9.4.1. Quick-start Tutorial
  • 9.4.2. Decimal objects
    • 9.4.2.1. Logical operands
  • 9.4.3. Context objects
  • 9.4.4. Constants
  • 9.4.5. Rounding modes
  • 9.4.6. Signals
  • 9.4.7. Floating Point Notes
    • 9.4.7.1. Mitigating round-off error with increased precision
    • 9.4.7.2. Special values
  • 9.4.8. Working with threads
  • 9.4.9. Recipes
  • 9.4.10. Decimal FAQ
• 9.5. fractions — Rational numbers
• 9.6. random — Generate pseudo-random numbers
  • 9.6.1. Notes on Reproducibility
  • 9.6.2. Examples and Recipes
• 9.7. statistics — Mathematical statistics functions
  • 9.7.1. Averages and measures of central location
  • 9.7.2. Measures of spread
  • 9.7.3. Function details
  • 9.7.4. Exceptions